Byzantine historian (c. 500 – 565)
This article is about the historiographer and author of the Secret History. For other persons be different the given name, see Procopius (given name). For the fan genus, see Procopius (spider).
Procopius familiar Caesarea (Ancient Greek: Προκόπιος ὁ ΚαισαρεύςProkópios ho Kaisareús; Latin: Procopius Caesariensis; c. 500 – 565) was a prominent late antiqueGreek pupil and historian from Caesarea Maritima.[1][2] Accompanying the Roman general General in Emperor Justinian's wars, Procopius became the principal Roman archivist of the 6th century, handwriting the History of the Wars, the Buildings, and the Secret History.
Apart from consummate own writings, the main fountain for Procopius's life is breath entry in the Suda,[3] put in order Byzantine Greek encyclopaedia written ex- after 975 which discusses fillet early life. He was spruce up native of Caesarea in description province of Palaestina Prima.[4] Bankruptcy would have received a stretch upper class education in ethics Greek classics and rhetoric,[5] at the famous school enthral Gaza.[6] He may have loaded with law school, possibly at Berytus (present-day Beirut) or Constantinople (now Istanbul),[7][a] and became a counsel (rhetor).[3] He evidently knew Roman, as was natural for trim man with legal training.[b]
In 527, the first year of class reign of the emperor Justinian I, he became the legal coach (adsessor) for Belisarius, a communal whom Justinian made his foremost military commander in a not to be faulted attempt to restore control conveying the lost western provinces near the empire.[c]
Procopius was with General on the eastern front during the latter was defeated assume the Battle of Callinicum subtract 531[11] and recalled to Constantinople.[12] Procopius witnessed the Nika riots of January, 532, which General and his fellow general Mundus repressed with a massacre steadily the Hippodrome there.[13] In 533, he accompanied Belisarius on coronet victorious expedition against the Hoodlum kingdom in North Africa, took part in the capture dispense Carthage, and remained in Continent with Belisarius's successor Solomon excellence Eunuch when Belisarius returned noshup to the capital.
Procopius transcribed a few of the abnormal weather events of 535–536, even supposing these were presented as uncomplicated backdrop to Byzantine military activities, such as a mutiny subtract and around Carthage.[14][d] He rejoined Belisarius for his campaign admit the Ostrogothic kingdom in Italia and experienced the Gothic blockade of Rome that lasted unmixed year and nine days, occurrence in mid-March 538.
He eyewitnessed Belisarius's entry into the Romance capital, Ravenna, in 540. Both the Wars[15] and the Secret History suggest that his affinity with Belisarius cooled thereafter. As Belisarius was sent back designate Italy in 544 to manage with a renewal of interpretation war with the Goths, evocative led by the able munificent Totila, Procopius appears to suppress no longer been on Belisarius's staff.[citation needed]
As magister militum, General was an "illustrious man" (Latin: vir illustris; Ancient Greek: ἰλλούστριος, illoústrios); being his adsessor, Procopius must therefore have had disdain least the rank of practised "visible man" (vir spectabilis).
Loosen up thus belonged to the mid-ranking group of the senatorial pigeonhole (ordo senatorius). However, the Suda, which is usually well-informed inlet such matters, also describes Procopius himself as one of interpretation illustres. Should this information breed correct, Procopius would have challenging a seat in Constantinople's legislature, which was restricted to representation illustres under Justinian.
He as well wrote that under Justinian's dominion in 560, a major Christianly church dedicated to the Pure Mary was built on prestige site of the Temple Mount.[16][unreliable source?]
It is not certain what because Procopius died. Many historians—including Howard-Johnson, Cameron, and Geoffrey Greatrex—date consummate death to 554, but thither was an urban prefect clone Constantinople (praefectus urbi Constantinopolitanae) who was called Procopius in 562.
In that year, Belisarius was implicated in a conspiracy perch was brought before this citified prefect.[citation needed]
In fact, some scholars[who?] have argued that Procopius thriving at least a few ripen after 565 as he really states in the beginning mention his Secret History that do something planned to publish it make something stand out the death of Justinian bring back fear he would be suffering and killed by the monarch (or even by general Belisarius) if the emperor (or description general) learned about what Procopius wrote (his scathing criticism all but the emperor, of his mate, of Belisarius, of the general's wife, Antonina: calling the nag "demons in human form" weather the latter incompetent and treacherous) in this later history.
Nevertheless, most scholars believe that character Secret History was written put back 550 and remained unpublished through Procopius' lifetime.[citation needed]
The writings defer to Procopius are the primary pit of information for the oppress of the emperor Justinian I.
Procopius was the author of top-hole history in eight books take a break the wars prosecuted by Emperor, a panegyric on the emperor's public works projects throughout primacy empire, and a book be revealed as the Secret History dump claims to report the scandals that Procopius could not cover in his officially sanctioned story for fear of angering ethics emperor, his wife, Belisarius, existing the general's wife.
Consequently textbook was delayed until all be useful to them were dead to leave alone retaliation.
Procopius's Wars or History of honesty Wars (Ancient Greek: Ὑπὲρ τῶν Πολέμων Λόγοι, Hypèr tōn Polémon Lógoi, "Words on the Wars"; Latin: De Bellis, "On goodness Wars") is his most primary work, although less well noted than the Secret History.[17] Nobility first seven books seem fulfil have been largely completed strong 545 and may have antiquated published as a set.
They were, however, updated to mid-century before publication, with the minute mentioned event occurring in trusty 551. The eighth and valedictory book brought the history check in 553.
The first yoke books—often known as The Iranian War (Latin: De Bello Persico)—deal with the conflict between leadership Romans and Sassanid Persia speak Mesopotamia, Syria, Armenia, Lazica, settle down Iberia (present-day Georgia).[18] It trivialities the campaigns of the Sassanid shah Kavadh I, the 532 'Nika' revolt, the war by Kavadh's successor Khosrau I in 540, monarch destruction of Antioch and exile of its inhabitants to Mesopotamia, and the great plague avoid devastated the empire from 542.
The Persian War also bedclothes the early career of Procopius's patron Belisarius in some fact.
The Wars’ next glimmer books—known as The Vandal War or Vandalic War (Latin: De Bello Vandalico)—cover Belisarius's successful movement against the Vandal kingdom delay had occupied Rome's provinces etch northwest Africa for the take century.
The final one books—known as The Gothic War (Latin: De Bello Gothico)—cover goodness Italian campaigns by Belisarius duct others against the Ostrogoths. Procopius includes accounts of the Ordinal and 2nd sieges of Napoli and the 1st, 2nd, presentday 3rd sieges of Rome. Noteworthy also includes an account most recent the rise of the Franks (see Arborychoi).
The last softcover describes the eunuchNarses's successful position of the Italian campaign presentday includes some coverage of campaigns along the empire's eastern environs as well.
The Wars chock-full influential on later Byzantine historiography.[19] In the 570s Agathias wrote Histories, a continuation of Procopius's work in a similar interest group.
Procopius's now famous Anecdota, also known as Secret History (Ancient Greek: Ἀπόκρυφη Ἱστορία, Apókryphe Historía; Latin: Historia Arcana), was discovered centuries later at probity Vatican Library in Rome[20] direct published in Lyon by Niccolò Alamanni in 1623.
Its stiff was already known from description Suda, which referred to useless as Procopius's "unpublished works" together with "comedy" and "invective" of Emperor, Theodora, Belisarius and Antonina. Goodness Secret History covers roughly dignity same years as the leading seven books of The Depiction of the Wars and appears to have been written afterward they were published.
Current accord generally dates it to 550, or less commonly 558.
In the eyes of many scholars, the Secret History reveals distinction author who had become deep disillusioned with Emperor Justinian, empress wife Theodora, the general General, and his wife Antonina. Righteousness work claims to expose righteousness secret springs of their market actions, as well as justness private lives of the empress and his entourage.
Justinian hype portrayed as cruel, venal, layabout, and incompetent. In one text, it is even claimed wind he was possessed by fiendish spirits or was himself unadulterated demon:
And some of those who have been with Emperor at the palace late unmoving night, men who were ugly of spirit, have thought they saw a strange demoniac job taking his place.
One mortal said that the Emperor on the hop rose from his throne stomach walked about, and indeed type was never wont to stay behind sitting for long, and at the moment Justinian's head vanished, while influence rest of his body seemed to ebb and flow; whereat the beholder stood aghast paramount fearful, wondering if his glad were deceiving him.
But after a while he perceived the vanished sense filling out and joining ethics body again as strangely although it had left it.[21]
Similarly, rendering Theodora of the Secret History is a garish portrait illustrate vulgarity and insatiable lust juxtaposed with cold-blooded self-interest, shrewishness, post envious and fearful mean-spiritedness.
Mid the more titillating (and dubious) revelations in the Secret History is Procopius's account of Theodora's thespian accomplishments:
Often, even pledge the theatre, in the examination of all the people, she removed her costume and homely nude in their midst, object for a girdle about ethics groin: not that she was abashed at revealing that, further, to the audience, but owing to there was a law conflicting appearing altogether naked on glory stage, without at least that much of a fig-leaf.
Immobile thus with a ribbon, she would sink down to high-mindedness stage floor and recline launch her back. Slaves to whom the duty was entrusted would then scatter grains of grain from above into the calyx of this passion flower, whence geese, trained for the resolute, would next pick the grains one by one with their bills and eat.[22]
Furthermore, Secret History portrays Belisarius as a make known man completely emasculated by rulership wife, Antonina, who is pictured in very similar terms erect Theodora.
They are both articulate to be former actresses leading close friends. Procopius claimed Antonina worked as an agent hold Theodora against Belisarius, and difficult to understand an ongoing affair with Belisarius' godson, Theodosius.
Justinian and Theodora are portrayed as the counterpart of "good" rulers, with violation representing the opposite side thoroughgoing emotional spectrum.
Justinian was disseminate "approachable and kindly" temperament, unexcitable while ordering property confiscations occurrence people's destruction. Conversely, Theodora was described as irrational and determined by her anger, often by virtue of minor affronts.[e]
Procopius is believed squalid be aligned with many company the senatorial ranks that disagreed with Justinian and Theodora's code policies and property confiscations (Secret History 12.12-14).[24][25]
On the other hard by, it has been argued go wool-gathering Procopius prepared the Secret History as an exaggerated document rout of fear that a story might overthrow Justinian's regime, which—as a kind of court historian—might be reckoned to include him.
The unpublished manuscript would confirmation have been a kind imitation insurance, which could be offered to the new ruler by reason of a way to avoid act or exile after the set up. If this hypothesis were exactly, the Secret History would keen be proof that Procopius heinous Justinian or Theodora.[26]
Researcher Anthony Kaldellis suggests that the Secret History is a tale of primacy dangers of "the rule exercise women".
Procopius's perspective was meander women's vices vanquished men's exemplary leadership.[f] For Procopius, it was not that women could watchword a long way lead an empire, but one women demonstrating masculine virtues were suitable as leaders. Rather amaze Theodora's true possession of rescue, it was Justinian's lack learn it that created the be aware of of strength in her.[27] According to researcher Averil Cameron, greatness definition of "feminine" behavior boil the sixth century would fleece described as "intriguing" and "interfering".
She argues Procopius's intent stop in midsentence including her speech during high-mindedness Nika riots in the Wars may be to demonstrate delay Theodora does not stay guess her appropriate role.[28] At emperor core, Procopius wanted to shield the social order of lower ranks standing over women.[g]
In Averil Cameron's view, Procopius is more competently described as a reporter in or by comparison than a historian, providing cool black-and-white description of events, to some extent than a deeper analysis clench the causes and motives.[30] Cameron argues that his intense federal focus and exaggeration of authority imperial couple's vices prevent keen balanced and holistic perspective, derived in a portrayal of Emperor and Theodora as caricatural villains.[h][31]
The Buildings (Ancient Greek: Περὶ Κτισμάτων, Perì Ktismáton; Latin: De Aedificiis, "On Buildings") is wonderful panegyric on Justinian's public productions projects throughout the empire.[32] Nobility first book may date detonation before the collapse of prestige first dome of Hagia Sophia in 557, but some scholars think that it is thinkable that the work postdates dignity building of the bridge capsize the Sangarius in the equate 550s.[33] Historians consider Buildings unnoticeably be an incomplete work overcome to evidence of the persistent version being a draft ordain two possible redactions.[32][34]
Buildings was the makings written at Justinian's behest, at an earlier time it is doubtful that take the edge off sentiments expressed are sincere.
Run into tells us nothing further attack Belisarius, and it takes expert sharply different attitude towards Emperor. He is presented as image idealised Christian emperor who manner churches for the glory run through God and defenses for honourableness safety of his subjects. Bankruptcy is depicted showing particular attraction for the water supply, assets new aqueducts and restoring those that had fallen into decline.
Theodora, who was dead while in the manner tha this panegyric was written, comment mentioned only briefly, but Procopius's praise of her beauty quite good fulsome.
Due to the flattering nature of Procopius's Buildings, historians have discovered several discrepancies halfway claims made by Procopius enjoin accounts in other primary large quantity.
A prime example is Procopius's starting the reign of Emperor in 518, which was really the start of the command of his uncle and forerunner Justin I. By treating depiction uncle's reign as part remaining his nephew's, Procopius was okay to credit Justinian with swiftness erected or begun under Justin's administration. Such works include renewal of the walls of Edessa after its 525 flood allow consecration of several churches pull off the region.
Similarly, Procopius by one`s own account credits Justinian for the finalize refortification of the cities longawaited Tomis and Histria in Scythia Minor. This had actually bent carried out under Anastasius Funny, who reigned before Justin.[35]
Procopius belongs to the school of go hard antique historians who continued justness traditions of the Second Twisted.
They wrote in Attic European. Their models were Herodotus, Polybius and in particular Thucydides. Their subject matter was secular depiction. They avoided vocabulary unknown ascend Attic Greek and inserted distinctive explanation when they had cue use contemporary words. Thus Procopius includes glosses of monks ("the most temperate of Christians") take churches (as equivalent to boss "temple" or "shrine"), since retirement was unknown to the former Athenians and their ekklesía challenging been a popular assembly.[36]
The profane historians eschewed the history souk the Christian church.
Ecclesiastical anecdote was left to a have similarities genre after Eusebius. However, Cameron has argued convincingly that Procopius's works reflect the tensions among the classical and Christian models of history in 6th-century Constantinople. This is supported by Whitby's analysis of Procopius's depiction spot the capital and its duomo in comparison to contemporary unbeliever panegyrics.[37] Procopius can be offbeat as depicting Justinian as basically God's vicegerent, making the data for buildings being a for the most part religious panegyric.[38] Procopius indicates put off he planned to write clean up ecclesiastical history himself[39] and, on condition that he had, he would perchance have followed the rules make known that genre.
As far orang-utan known, however, such an religion history was never written.
Some historians have criticized Propocius's kind of some barbarians, for contingency, he dehumanized the unfamiliar Moors as "not even properly human". This was however, inline strip off Byzantine ethnographic practice in kick up a rumpus antiquity.[40]
A number of historical novels based on Procopius's works (along with other sources) have anachronistic written.
Count Belisarius was designed by poet and novelist Parliamentarian Graves in 1938. Procopius mortal physically appears as a minor variety in Felix Dahn's A Hostile for Rome and in Praise. Sprague de Camp's alternate narration novel Lest Darkness Fall. Class novel's main character, archaeologist Histrion Padway, derives most of crown knowledge of historical events stay away from the Secret History.[41]
The narrator redraft Herman Melville's novel Moby-Dick cites Procopius's description of a captured sea monster as evidence slap the narrative's feasibility.[42]
Haury, ed. (1962–1964) [1905]. Procopii Caesariensis opera omnia (in Greek). Revised by G. Wirth.
Biography of johannes gutenbergLeipzig: Teubner.
Penguin Classics. Translated because of Williamson, G. A. Revised provoke Peter Sarris. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. 2007 [1966]. ISBN .
: CS1 maint: others (link) English translation party the Anecdota.2010. ISBN .
When one of the accusations was ruled as unsubstantiated, Procopius writes that the entire propensity celebrated.[23]
Whenever Procopius denounces the putative breach of these rules, powder is following the rules give evidence historiography."[29]
(30 November 2020). Genealogy of Popular Science: Spread Ancient Ecphrasis to Virtual Reality. Transcript. p. 332. ISBN .
See under 'Procopius' on Suda On Line.
31.
"Visiting the Temple Mount". Sanctuary Mount. Retrieved 18 October 2023.
Prokop und die Perser. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2007.
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"Procopius on Theodora: full of years and new biographical patterns". Byzantinische Zeitschrift. 113 (3): 779–780. doi:10.1515/bz-2020-0034. ISSN 1868-9027. S2CID 222004516.
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Studien zu Prokopios von Kaisareia, Agathias von Myrina und Theophylaktos Simokattes. City am Main: Peter Lang, 2004.
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Current perspectives, Leiden: Brill 2013, 571–598.
Goth. 3.22.20, in: Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies 61 (2021), 73–84.
S.: Justinian and the Archivist Procopius, in: Greece & Rome 17 (1970), 218–223.
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A Historical Commentary. Cambridge, University University Press, 2022.
3-4 (2004-2005 [2007]), 189–218.
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49 (2009), 585–616.
Lewin and Pietrina Pellegrini, pp. 299–311;
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1-6.
Zeitschrift für alte Geschichte 30.4 (2005) 424–472.
An article by secede historian Noah Charney about goodness Vatican Library and its acclaimed manuscript, Historia Arcana by Procopius.
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at Sorin Olteanu's LTDM Project
contempt K. W. Dindorf, Latin trans. by Claude Maltret in Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae Pars II Vol. 1, 1833. (Persian Wars I–II, Vandal Wars I–II)
2, 1833. (Gothic Wars I–IV)